Description of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

Description of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a standardized questionnaire designed to bring forth a wide variety of self-descriptions scored to give a quantitative dimension of an individuals level of emotional adjustment and approach toward test taking. The MMPI has been known as the leading personality inventory, most psychologists who conduct assessments as part of their clinical and consulting practice utilize this test. The widespread use of this test is accredited to several features ranging from its straightforwardness in scoring and administration, a straightforward response format that is essential for research design, a large item pool, many useful purposes and functions, and many practically established correlates. Psychologists make diagnostic and treatment decisions, through MMPI, it has been employed in inpatient and outpatient mental health facilities. It has been used by psychologists in clinical setting to evaluate the existence of psychological components in physical issues and to aid in predicting responses to a variety of therapy and treatment. Starke R. Hathaway and J. Charnley McKinley developed the MMPI in 1939 at the university of Minnesota. It was developed initially because of their vision of an instrument that could assist in evaluating patients during routine psychiatric case workups and could precisely determine the severity of their disorders. Hathaway believed the MMPI might aid researchers in assessing the usefulness of new treatment interventions by allowing methodical matching and evaluation of the participants. The MMPI was constructed using the criterion keying method also known as the empirical method of inventory construction. (Archer, 1997) The criterion keying method is utilized by testing with two or more groups of participants. One group serves as the criterion group, this group has evidence of the defining trait, diagnosis or characteristic that test is intended to evaluate, and the other group/groups serve as a comparison group, where there is no evidence of the characteristics or diagnosis under evaluation. Responses of the criterion and comparison group are compared, and items are then selected for inventory membership that empirically demonstrate significant differences in response frequency. (Archer, 1997) Hathaway and McKinley began their construction of the MMPI by creating an extensive item pool from which various scales could be constructed, the item pool consisted of a variety of statements from different sources, ranging from previously established scales of personal and social attitudes, clinical reports, case histories, psychiatric interviewing manuals and personal clinical experience. (Groth-Marnat, 1997) the result of extensive exclusion and amendment were 504 statements, these statements were balanced between positive and negative wording, and were developed to tap into a broad area of an individuals life. The 504 items were divided into twenty-five content areas. These included items related to general medical and neurological symptoms, the clinical scales ranged from hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria psychopathic deviate, paranoia, schizophrenia, etc to scales to social introversion etc. An additional 55 items thought to be related to masculinity-femininity were later added, and 9 items were subsequently deleted to achieve the final pool of 550 items. (Nichols, 2001) The format of the inventory was first person declarative statements, composed of basic phrasing based on contemporary word-frequency tables. The responses were limited to true, false or cannot say. (Nichols, 2001) The population consisted of normals(Nichols) who were selected to contrast with the pathological criterion groups (N=724) ranging from the age of 16 to 65 referred also as the Minnesota normals(Groth-Marnat, 1997), the sample was closely representative of a typical group of individuals from the Minnesota population, as indicated through the 1930 census. The scales were cross-validated by selecting a different group of normals and contrasting their responses with a new group of clinical patients; so that the items and scales would be valid for differential analysis in clinical setting. Hathaway and McKinley were interested in the fact that participants amend the impression they made on the test due to different test taking positions and opinions; hence the created several scales that could identify the different types and magnitudes of various test-taking attitudes which could invalidate the clinical scales. They developed four scales: the cannot say scale (?) was simply the total number of unanswered statements; If amount of questions was high it would reduce the overall validity of the MMPI profile. The lie scale (L) was developed to indicates the examinees efforts to place himself/herself morally and culturally under an favorable light a create an favorable impression. The infrequency scale (F) is used to assess the inclination of individuals to claim highly unusual attitudes, opinions, and behaviors that are classified as an component of psychopathology. The correction scale (k) assesses the examinees degree of psychological defensiveness (Groth-Marnat, 1997) t his is considered the most important validity scale. Practical evaluation of the MMPI The MMPI can be administered to an individual who is above the age of 16, with an average sixth-grade reading level. As mentioned above an individual above the age of 16 is permitted to take the test, but adolescent norms needs to be addresses. Standard instruction are given prior to the test, test instruction are given regarding the nature and purpose of the test, and what it is designed to evaluate, and how the results will be used. Administering of the MMPI can be viewed as a relatively easy undertaking, and hence many practitioners tend to overlook vital elements that influence the participants test-taking attitude and would eventually lead to invalid results. Prior to the administration, scoring, and interpretation of results, the administrator should highlight the importance and consequences of the test in a serious manner to the test-taker, often the administrators do not high light the importance of the test to decrease performance anxiety. A clear elucidation oh how the resu lts are significant and how it is going to be used will increase cooperation. Interpretation of data is an important and vital part of the MMPI; the collected is useful in supplying information about attitudes toward assessment, cooperation, cognitive/ideation, mood and affect, conflict areas, coping styles, diagnostic consideration and treatment recommendation The interpretation of the scores was based on the principle that a participant attains a raw score on each scale based on the number of items that they identified in the scored direction. The raw scores are then later converted to T scores, with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. The interpretation of the test can be done in three ways, first using the validity indicators, this is the first step in interpreting any personality profile; which is establishing the validity to assure the subjects cooperativeness in taking the test. MMPI has been established as having the most comprehensive validity indicators (Goldstein, 2000) among all established personality inventories and assessments. Secondly interpreting results involve Configural Interpretation (code type), this is due to the intercorrelations amongst scales and also the overlap amongst the similarities of clinical syndromes, evidence has been attained indicating several MMPI scales tend to increase together, therefore, interpretations of scales should depend on the elevations of other scales in the personality profile. Third and final approach to interpreting the results is content bases interpretation. The principal followed in the content interpretation relies on the assumption that the participant when answering test items is reacting and responding with honesty and sincerity to the MMPI. Accordingly the content of the MMPI may represent a vital source of information that cannot be accessible through empirical test-interpretation. Technical evaluation The reliability analysis of the MMPI indicate that its has moderate levels of temporal stability and internal consistencyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ all MMPI scales are quite reliable, with values that range from a low of .71 to a high of .84. (Groth-Marnat, 1997) many studies have reported inconsistency in some of the scales; many argue that the scales of the MMPI show instability in the test scores that are to be anticipated. This is mainly due to the psychiatric population since the effects of treatment or stabilization in a temporary crisis situation is likely to be reflected in a patients test performance. (Groth-Marnat, 1997) To cross-validate the scales, participants of the criterion and the control groups were administered the items. To qualify as cross-validated, a scale had to distinguish the criterion group from the control group at a 0.5 alpha level significance. Another issue that has surface about the MMPI is about the construction of the scales. The intercorrelations between most of the scales are relatively high, which is primarily due to the extensive amount of item overlap. Occasionally, the same item will be concurrently used for the scoring of a few other scales, and hence most of the scales have a relatively high percentage of items similar to other scales The problems associated with the reliability and scale construction have led to hurdles and speculation on the validity of the MMPI. MMPI has been commended about its strict psychometric properties that present complications, but it has been adequately compensated by its intensive validity studies Development of the MMPI-2 and MMPI-A Problems concerning the MMPI were mainly about the growing issues related to scale construction, insufficiency of a standardized sample and problems with the item pool. The original norm had inadequate representation of the minorities and hence was redundant in making conclusions about and with current test-takers. In 1982, the university of Minnesota instigated a major research in effort to revise, update, improve, and restandardize the MMPI. Its main goals were to delete the redundant, questionable, and problematic items. Maintain the efficacy of existing validity; clinical and different widely utilized scales of the test. Develop a representative sample, Develop new, revised norms for the MMPI and the development of new scales. The MMPI was updated and restandardized and the new version was released in 1989; 46 years after the original MMPI was published. The revised MMPI-2 differs from the older MMPI in various ways; the T scores that the subject obtains are usually not as deviant as those from the previous version. In addition, the T scores designed to produce the same range and distribution right through the established clinical scales. The practical result is that T scores of 65 or greater are considered to be in clinical scale range; also the percentile distributions are consistent throughout the different type of scales. The test booklet itself contains 567 items, but the pattern has been changed so that the previously established scales (the 10 clinical and 3 validity scales) can be derived from the first 370 items. The proceeding 197 items provide different content, supplementary scales. A number of new and revised scales have been included along with new, revised, adjunctive procedures of test vali dity, separate measure of masculinity and femininity and 15 other additional content scales measuring unambiguous and specific personality traits and factors. (Groth-Marnat, 1997) The MMPI-2 shares a lot of psychometric property with the original MMPI. The median split-half reliability coefficients for the MMPI and the MMPI-2 are in the .70s with some coefficients as high as .96 but others much lower. Median of the test-retest coefficients range from a low .50 to .90; when one observes the basic higher-order factor structure; the MMPI and the MMPI-2 are extremely reliable, with coefficients running as high as .90. The MMPI and the MMPI have been criticized due to the item overlap and this issue was not confronted in the revision of the original MMPI, as the goal was to retain all the original scales. Another criticism associated with the MMPI and MMPI-2 is the imbalance in the way the items are keyed(Kaplan Saccuzzo, 2009). the MMPI and the MMPI-2 strongly emphasize the importance of taking the participants demographics into account when interpreting profiles. The MMPI-A was published for the sole interest of creating an instrument for adolescents, with a normative sample depicting the broad teenage population. This occurred because MMPI produced different scale elevations for adolescence than for adults. This resulted in the construction of different sets of recommended norms for use with adolescent populations. To counter argue that the MMPI is too long, especially for adolescent, the MMPI-A contains 478 items, there by shortening the administration. (Groth-Marnat, 1997) Significant features of the MMPI include descriptive and diagnostic information about the personality profiles, flexible administration and scoring. The most important feature of the MMPI is its validity scales; and it has been translated and published into over 20 languages The most needed amendment of the MMPI apparently has been a major accomplishment; the majority of psychologist, researchers, and clinicians have supported its utility and practical value resulting in its rising popularity among them. The MMPI serves to assist in distinguishing the normal from abnormal groups; specifically the test was designed to help aid in diagnosis and evaluation of major psychiatric or psychological disorders.

Fish Oil Health Benefits

Fish oil health benefits are exaggerated, says a new study appearing in the Canadian Medical Association Journal. And yet, it warns, increased consumer demand for fish oil is pushing fish populations to the brink. Medical scientists from St. Michael's Hospital and the University of Toronto have teamed with researchers from the University of British Columbia's Fisheries Centre and author Farley Mowat to closely examine the effects of health claims with regard to seafood. For years, international agencies concerned with health and nutrition have promoted seafood consumption. â€Å"Our concern is that fish stocks are under extreme pressure globally and that studies are still urgently required to define precisely who will benefit from fish oil,† says Dr. David J. A. Jenkins, a doctor at St. Michael's Hospital and a professor at the University of Toronto Faculty of Medicine's Department of Nutritional Sciences. Further, if we decide that fish oil supplementation is necessary for good health, then unicellular sources of ‘fish oil' like algae, yeasts, etc, should now be used, as they are in infant formula,† adds Dr. Jenkins. While some studies have reported fish oil health benefits healthy benefits, others have failed to show a significant effect. But these negative studies are often ignored and the result has been increased demand for seafood by consumers in the developed world, often at the expense of food security in developing nations. Governments and industry tell consumers to eat more fish because it is healthy,† explains Rashid Sumaila, director of the Fisheries Economics Research Unit at UBC Fisheries Centre and study co-author. â€Å"But where do we get these fish? They are increasingly coming from the waters around Africa and other places where food security is a problem. † At best, fish oils are just one factor out of many that may reduce ailments such as heart disease and researchers found that people who do not eat fish, such as vegetarians, are not at increased risk of illness. Furthermore, dietary recommendations to consume more fish are incompatible with the sustainability of ocean ecosystems, according to a concurrent study recently published in the International Journal of Epidemiology. â€Å"For people in Canada or the US, or in the EU, eating fish is one of many possible options, both in terms of a tasty meal, and in terms of a balanced diet,† says UBC fisheries researcher Daniel Pauly. â€Å"For many people in developing countries, fish is often their only source of protein. It would be irresponsible for us to ‘triage' food sources without verifying that fish oil indeed promotes human health. † Farley Mowat, co-author on this study, adds: â€Å"In the immediate future, human beings are going to have to find better ways to live. Our rape and pillage of the environment has to end before it becomes our end. The damage we have already done to life in the oceans is a prime example of our idiocy, and a last warning that we had better change our ways. â€Å"

Personal Narrative - Athlete to Academia Essay - 668 Words

Athlete to Academia Instead of feeling pressure to conform as a student at the University of Georgia, I have found that being in college has made me value the importance of a higher education more so than I ever had before. During high school, my primary goal was to play well enough to receive a football scholarship. At that time, my focus was not on academics. However, since Ive arrived at the University of Georgia, my entire concept of the value of a college degree has slowly changed. Rather than seeing just football in my future, I can now picture myself as a football player with a college degree. Consequently, instead of having a negative impact on my personal growth, college has helped me broaden as a person. Contrary†¦show more content†¦In terms of value structure, the morals I held close before I first came to the University of Georgia have only strengthened during my stay here. For example, keeping close ties to my family has always been important to me. My family is tight-knit and I will always feel a strong bond to them. Being separated by my attendance at Georgia has not only diminished our bond, but, instead has made it stronger. We appreciate each other more because I am growing into an adult who can communicate with them as an adult and accept adult responsibilities. They now see facets of my character that they have never truly seen before. My increased interest in academics is one of these changes. They seem very pleased by my eagerness to learn of subjects that, up to now, I have never been exposed to. They have seen this dedication in relation to football, but never with my studies. Though I am still not the student I hope one day to be, always finding the time to concentrate on my classes, I have certainly come a long way. Surely, from this perspective, college has affected me in only a positive manner. No one should feel the pressure to become someone they are not simply because they leave behind their safe environment when coming to college. Anyone can have the strength of character to become an individual in a sea of thousands of students. Instead of finding this experience difficult, itShow MoreRelatedThe Role Of Sports For Athletes And Women Athletes1500 Words   |  6 PagesMarketisation and commoditisation provide leverage for powerful nations to assert their dominance over their sport competitors by, for instance, buying their best athletes from the dominated countries and sometimes offering those athletes citizenship. There are instances when international corporate entities sponsor and own clubs in other countries, make all management decisions, and secure profits which they return to their home countries thereby leaving host countries further impoverished (NaurightRead MoreTheoretical Ethnographic And Conceptual Background2393 Words   |  10 Pagesa disposition to do sports as in the case of any other technique of the body, the work done by the individual will be for practical collective reason (that underlines accepted theories of social action). In societies where athletes excel, the benefit is not for only the athlete but also the community as Brownell (1995:15) explains in ‘’training the body for China’’. Developing his ideas further, Mauss (1979) posited that there are instances where a ‘’physio-psycho-sociological’’ congregation of seriesRead MoreMastering Graduate Studies 1e32499 Words   |  130 Pagesyour life. These next steps in your personal and professional development will take your desire for learning and growth and shape it into a lifetransforming and world-impacting endeavor. This first chapter will deal with the big-picture understanding of where you are going and the fundamental components of success in this environment. You will gain an understanding of how your purpose, Grand Canyon University’s educational format, and the essential areas of personal responsibility will propel you forwardRead MoreOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 Pagesoutcomes. These learning outcomes provide a guide to the different sections of the chapter. Stop and think Each of the chapters contains ‘stop and think’ boxes. These are designed to form the basis for brief discussion amongst group members or for personal reflection on some key issue raised in the text. Case studies These are designed to enable the reader to relate theoretical issues to organization practice, or to give a practical organizational example. Ideas and perspectives These are designed

Latin American Immigration And The Growth Of The Latino...

Critical Response Latin American immigration to the United States and the growth of the latino and hispanic population is currently one of the most controversial topics being debated right now. What started as a small, regionally concentrated population of fewer 6 million in 1960, is now broadly scattered population of more than 50 million. Latino population keeps growing and exerting enormous impact on social, cultural, political, and economic aspects in the U.S. However, unlike what a lot of people think, Latino immigration to the United states is more than a population’s aspirations to the american dream, it has been influenced by multiple factors such as national, regional, and global developments, the history of the U.S. military and its foreign policy in the Western Hemisphere, the controversial history of international border enforcement. When latino immigrants get to the United States, they make it their nation. However, their nation often fails to protect them and their interests, as w ell as embrace them. In this essay, I will explore in detail the various factors that drove the Latino community to immigrate to the U.S., and how the role of the U.S. as their nation shapes their experience. Latino migration to the United States has been largely influenced by the economic and political unrest Latin American countries have experienced and still experience. 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